The Old English Rune Poem

The rune name feoh is consistent throughout the rune rows. In Old Norse its cognate fé is applied to this stave. The Gothic letter name fe could derive from a rune name *faihu in that language. All of these words bore the meaning of "cattle, money, mobile property." They ultimately derive from Proto-Germanic *fehu.

The phonetic value of feoh varied little among the Germanic peoples, as it always represents f. In  Old Norse, however, it could also represent the v sound.

The rune verse for feoh is often assumed to have been Christianised, probably because the way translators have treated the final two half lines. Most often it has been translated along the lines of "if he wishes for the Lord's favour." In The Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem: a Translation and Commentary, Swain Wodening theorises that translators make two mistakes in interpreting these half lines this way. The first is that the word dryhten does not necessarily refer to the Christian God or Jesus Christ. Its Old Norse cognate dröttin was used in several titles of the god Óðinn, whom the Anglo-Saxons knew as Wóden. As the word literally means "troop leader" it is perhaps a fitting title for the god of the battle slain. Since we have no reason to believe the Anglo-Saxons did not also use the word dryhten as a title for Wóden, there is no reason to assume that the dryhten referred to in this verse is the Christian God. The second problem is that the second half lines dómes hléotan is more literally translated as "to cast doom's lots" or "to cast the lots of judgement." This Swain Wodening interprets as if one wishes "for Wóden to intervene in his wyrd."

What the verse for feoh when translated this way appears to be saying is that if one wishes for the Drighten (that is, Wóden) to intervene in one's wyrd or one's condition in life, then he must deal wealth out freely. This brings to mind the fact that such kennings as "giver of gold" and "ring giver" were often applied to kings among the Germanic peoples. It was believed that kings should deal gold out freely to their followers as a reward for their services. From the ancient sources we know that kings who failed to this often had poor reigns and eventually suffered tragic fates. Generosity was not simply a trait valued in kings, however, but in everyone. In fact, it was one of the cardinal virtues of ancient heathendom. It makes sense then that the rune verse for feoh should express the thought that "every man" should deal wealth freely if he wishes for Drighten's help.

In Old English úr meant "aurochs," a rather large bovine creature (now extinct) known for it huge horns. The Old Norwegian and Old Icelandic Rune Poems replace this name with two homonyms meaning  "slag" and "drizzle" respectively. Elliot posits that the original name of the rune was Proto-Germanic *uruz, "aurochs," which was preserved in the Old English Rune Poem. As aurochs were nearly extinct by the time the Old Norwegian Rune Poem was written and were never native to Iceland, the name was replaced  by more familiar things in those languages (Elliot, Runes: an Introduction, p. 64).

The emphasis in the Old English Rune Poem verse for úr is on fighting prowess and strength. Indeed, in Julius Caesar's Gallic War we find a passage in which he describes how young Germans would hunt the aurochs, trapping them in pits. Those who had killed one of these beasts would bring back the horns as proof and receive great fame in reward. Caesar goes on to say that the Germans would collect the horns and decorate them in silver for use as drinking vessels. In describing an animal whom the ancient Germans used as a test of  hunting skill, strength, and courage, the Old English rune verse of úr might also suggest a test of one's mettle, an ordeal, or a rite of passage.

The Old English Rune Poem gives the name of the third rune as þorn, our modern word thorn. In both the Old Norwegian and Old Icelandic Rune Poems, however, it appears as þurs, a word denoting the giants of Germanic mythology. The Gothic letter name was þyþ, which apparently means "the good one." It is tempting to believe that the original name of the rune was Proto-Germanic *þurisaz, "giant, demon," and that Christianity replaced the name in Old English and Gothic for obvious reasons. Indeed, as Page points out, some have suggested that the Old English Rune Poem  verse for þorn was adapted from an original one for Old English þyrs:  "A giant is extremely fierce. Grappling with him is unpleasant for any warrior. They are uncommonly severe to anyone who lives among them (Page, An Introduction to English Runes, p. 76.)"

The sound of þorn was consistent among the Germanic peoples, that of th in thin.

Whether this rune verse was originally about a þyrs or about a þorn, it would appear to be a warning against grappling with something dangerous. Quite simply, it is not wise to grab hold of a thorny branch or to try to wrestle a giant. In everyday life this could be an admonition to look at situations closely before becoming involved in them, to not try taking on more than we can handle, or to avoid situations that could be potentially dangerous.

The name of the rune ós as been a matter of contention among scholars for years. In the Old Icelandic Rune Poem it appears as áss, "god, one of the Æsir," and its verse obviously refers to Óðinn (in Old English, Wóden). The Old Norwegian Rune Poem gives the rune the name óss, "river mouth."  The Gothic letter name was aza, which perhaps derived from a Gothic *ansus, "god (the plural of which, anses, does appear in ancient sources)." Because the two other rune poems disagree on the rune's name, this has left the meaning of Old English ós as it occurs in the Old English Rune Poem up to debate.

Many scholars argue that ós  in the Old English Rune Poem means "god" and refers to Wóden as the originator of all speech. Others maintain that it is actually the Latin word, "mouth." In support of the former theory is the Old Icelandic Rune Poem verse for the runestave, which clearly means "god" and refers to Óðinn. Similarly, the Gothic letter name looks as if it could have been derived from a Gothic cognate of Old Icelandic áss. On the other hand, the latter theory has little to support it beyond the possibility that the rune verse could refer to the mouth. It must be pointed out that Latin os appears rarely, if at all, in purely Old English texts and that it would be the only case of a foreign (that is, non-Germanic) word being used as a rune name. It seems more likely that the word ós in the Old English Rune Poem means "god."

In Old English the original shape of the runestave ós was replaced by a new one. The  original shape was then assigned to one of the additional Anglo-Frisian runestaves, æsc. Not only did its shape change from Common Germanic, but so too did its sound. Its  original sound had been a as in German Bach. In Old English, however, it shifted to a long o, as in Modern English note.

Despite the debate over whether the rune's name is Old English ós "god" or Latin os "mouth," I believe that the verse is about Wóden--the Ós himself. Though it is never made abundantly clear in the ancient sources, Wóden could easily be the god of all speech. After all, Wóden was god of poetry, spells, and the runes--of all the gods his command of speech was probably the greatest. According to the Eddic poem  Vóluspá, Wóden granted man önd, "breath." This could possibly include the power of speech as well. Wóden could then easily be the primal source of all speech. To a large degree speech was associated with wisdom in the minds of the Germanic peoples. They often held contests of knowledge and delighted in riddles and poetry. Wóden was also the god of wisdom, often seeking out ancient giants to hold contests of knowledge with them and often at very high stakes (in one instance it was the loser's head). As the god of wisdom Wóden was also seen as the chief supporter of wise men. He was the god of kings, nobles, runesters, and poets--all professions in which wisdom is a definite asset. As the source of all speech Wóden is then the "wise man's help. Finally, in a time when wisdom was a valuable commodity, the god of wisdom would be the ultimate source of a wise noble's riches. If he rune's name is indeed Old English ós  "god" (and I personally do not find too many arguments to the contrary to be viable), then the verse is simply stating that Wóden is the source of origin of all speech, that he supports wisdom and helps wise men, and that the god of wisdom is the wealth of nobles.

Old English rád primarily meant "riding, journey." Both Old Icelandic reið and Old Norwegian ræið mean the same thing. All three derive from Proto-Germanic *raiðo-.

The phonetic value of rád is r.

Some scholars believe that the Old English Rune Poem verse for rád could be a play on words. The first part of the verse could refer to "the modulation of a musical instrument (for which rád was also used)" or perhaps "equipment, furnishings (for which the Old Norse cognate reið was used)." In this case rád ("modulation of a musical instrument" or "furnishings") would be "soft" for every warrior while in the hall, but rád ("riding ") would be "very brisk...over miles of paths." Page observes that, "If this interpretation is right the rád verse has something of the quality of an Anglo-Saxon riddle, misleading the hearer by dwelling on the various aspects of one word (Page, Runes: an Introduction, p. 77)."  The theme of of strenuous work found in the Old English Rune Poem verse for rád is also reflected in the Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian Rune Poems. In the former riding is called "the toil of the horse," while in the latter it is called "the worst on horses."

The basic message of the Old English Rune Poem verse for rád  could  be that some things are easy,  particularly while in safe surroundings  (the hall), but other things are quite difficult, particularly when away from the safety of hall or  home (the miles of paths).
 

As used in the Old English Rune Poem cén means "torch." While the word itself appears nowhere else in Old English sources, the runestave appears in various manuscripts as a shorthand for a word meaning "torch, flame." Cén is cognate to Old High German chien, which also meant "torch." Both the Old Icelandic and Old Norse Rune Poems, however, give the name of the rune as kaun, which means "ulcer." The Gothic letter name was chozma. Because of the variety of names given this rune, it is nearly impossible to determine what the original may have been. If one had to hazard a guess, the safest bet may well be cén, "torch." As will be discussed below, the Germanic peoples held several different beliefs linked to fire or flames, so that naming one of the runes "torch" would seem reasonable. On the other hand, not only does the name "ulcer" lack the same sort of appeal, but it is harder to apply to the Germanic world view.

In Old English the shape of cén evolved from the smaller, c shaped stave to a the taller form seen above, among a few other shapes. It was originally pronounced k in Common Germanic, although in Old English it could also be applied to the ch sound. Eventually the k sound would be taken over by the additional runestave cealc. In the Younger Futhark it could denote either k or g.

The verse for cén would appear to be a description of a torch burning in a hall. It is perhaps significant  that it is said to burn most often where athelings rest inside. The rune cén could possibly deal in part with nobility. Indeed, its fire is said to be "flashing and bright." In the elder sources the eyes of nobles and heroes were described with nearly the same words. Cén could then be a rune of nobles and heroes, a rune perhaps associated with the best in humanity.

For the other possible meanings of cén we must look to the folklore on fire among the Germanic peoples. There is some evidence that ritual burning of the dead inside the grave took place among the ancient Germanic peoples. In the Stapenhill cemetery of Staffordshire, England, there are graves which point to the corpses within them having been burned after being interred. The graveyard at Kettering also shows signs of this practice. Yet other graveyards on the Continent show that burning the dead within the grave could have been practised there. The reference to cén burning most often where athelings rest inside could be a reference to this custom. That is, cén burns most often where athelings rest inside the grave. If this is the case, then cén would appear to be a rune dealing with death, specifically the rituals immediately following death.

Of course, cremation was not the only ritual involving fire practised by the ancient Germanic peoples. There was also the ritual of need fire. A need fire could only be kindled by a fire bow or a fire drill--it could not be lit by flint and steel. Once lit livestock were driven through the fires and some people would even pass through the flames themselves. It seems that fire and smoke was believed to drive away disease and pests and perhaps this is the reason people would sometimes jump through the flames themselves. Related to the need fire rite is the fact that nobles often slept with candles in their room to stave off disease and drive away evil spirits. Since fire appears to have been viewed as a force of purification by the ancient Germanic peoples, something which could drive away both disease and evil spirits, then cén as the "torch rune" could be a rune of purification. It could be the flame that drives away evil spirits and disease.

Giefu means "gift." What its Old Norse name might have been is unknown, as it was one of the staves discarded in the transition to a shorter rune row. The Gothic letter name is geuua, which could be a variation of the Gothic word giba, "gift."

Giefu's original phonetic value was g as in German sagen. In Old English g (and hence the rune giefu as well) came to be pronounced any number of  ways, often depending upon its position in a word. Eventually the original phonetic value would be assigned to a new runestave gär.

Many reading the rune verse for giefu might mistakenly believe that it expresses sentiments that are purely Christian in outlook; however, generosity was counted among the virtues of the ancient Germanic peoples as well. Kings were expected to reward their followers with treasures, hence the kenning "ring giver" for king. Brides and grooms exchanged gifts. Whenever a guest arrived at one's home he was expected to bring gifts. Giving was very much a part of the ancient Germanic culture. It would be a mistake, however, to assume that such giving was a one sided affair. The Hávamál verse 145 states "...a gift looks for a gift" and verses 41 and 42 emphasise the importance of sharing gifts with one's friends. For every gift given, then, one must be returned. That is not to say that gifts had to be large or extravagant. Hávamál verse 52 states that one need not give great gifts and that Óðinn (Old English Wóden) won fellowship with but a half a flask of mead and a half a loaf of  bread. Gifts also did not have to be material in nature. An Anglo-Saxon scop or Scandinavian skald could compose a poem in return for a gift.

Among the ancient Germanic peoples giving was seen as a means of forming a bond between two people. Anytime gifts were exchanged between individuals, a bond of mægen (the metaphysical force pervading the universe and which all individuals possess) was formed between them. This is the reason lords exchanged gifts with their thegns, husbands with wives, and so on. To fail to return a gift meant a loss of mægen equal in  value in to the gift. In a time and place where food might be needed for the long winter and precious metals were rare and hard to come by, the ancient Germanic peoples simply could not afford to give gifts and not expect a gift in return (Wodening, We Are Our Deeds, p. 67).

Wynn means "happiness." It is one of the runestaves which does not appear in the Old Norse rune row. The Gothic letter name was uuine, which appears to be a cognate of wynn.

The phonetic value of wynn is w.

On the surface the verse for wynn seems straight forward, a simple statement of fact. Naturally, or so it would seem, the man who knows little suffering or sorrow, who has prosperity and bliss, and a good home (a "fortress"), would enjoy happiness. In The Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem: a Translation and Commentary Swain Wodening points out, however, that the precise words are Wynn brúceþ, which can not only be translated "Wynn he enjoys," but "Wynn he uses.." Indeed, the primary meaning of the Old English verb brúcan was "to use"--it survived as our modern word brook (as in "I will brook no further outbursts"). Swain Wodening offered the theory that here the word brúcan is being used in both senses--that is, to mean "to use" as well "to enjoy." Swain Wodening then views the verse as being a positivist statement, that is one who uses joy (applies it to his life or thinks positively) will no little want, suffering, and sorrow, will have prosperity and bliss, and will have a good home.  Wynn could then not only be a rune of happiness, but a rune of positive thinking or enthusiasm as well.

Perhaps confirming this is the etymology of the word wynn itself. The word ultimately derives from the Indo-European root *wen-, meaning "to strive for, to desire."  From this same root came Old Norse VanR (as in Vanir), Old English winnan, "to strive for, to win," and Old English wenian, "to accustom, to train, to wean." Wynn could then be that feeling which comes from finally achieving the goals one has been striving for. Indeed, perhaps the rune wynn not only involves the feeling of joy itself, but the steps that must be taken to achieve joy; that is, it involves the striving for goals and the feeling that comes from achieving those goals as well.